■ TRUE WELFARE - Reading List

1. Population growth/pressure on resources

Malthus, T.R., An Essay on the Principle of Population (London, 1798)
This is one of the most influential books on the subject of population growth and the pressure on resources. In his book Malthus states: "The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man.” Malthus was convinced that the food production could not keep up with the growth pace of the world population. Malthus further claimed that a growing population, which would lead to rising supply of labour, would lead inevitably to lower wages (Malthus’ Iron Law of Population). He therefore feared that a continuously growing population would lead to mass poverty and hunger. His ideas led to the development of the Malthusian growth model or the simple exponential growth model (A population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as the environment experienced by all individuals in the population remains constant).1

Ehrlich, P.R., The Population Bomb (New York, 1968)
In this book Ehrlich follows the footsteps of Malthus. Ehrlich warned that the ever growing population would lead to mass starvation in the 1970s and 1980s. To prevent this from happening he suggested that the growth rate had to be reduced to zero or even to a negative growth. Besides that the food production had to be increased. The United States should play a leading role in controlling the population growth, they were morally obliged to take the lead because they were consuming much more than the rest of the world. He claimed drastic measured had to be introduced to control the growth population. He suggested for example to impose taxes on families with additional children and a tax for childcare goods. On the other hand he wanted monetary incentives for men who were willing to be sterilized before they had two children. He thought a Department of Population and Environment had to be created to implement these measures.
The Population Bomb received a lot of critics; Ehrlich presented too much of a doom scenario and many of this predictions have not been realized. However, in view of increasing food prices and a growing world population (which is estimated to reach 8 billion by 2025), the concerns he posed more that forty years ago are still very relevant today.2

Dubos, R. and Ward, B., Only One Earth: the Care and Maintenance of a Small Planet (New York 1972)
Only One Earth was written for the 1972 UN Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment. In this book a clear link is made between development and environment. It suggests to combine the commitment human needs with the acknowledgement of the limits of the earth. Therefore, according to the authors, the UN had to define clearly what to do to maintain the planet a liveable place for future generations. This would be the starting point for the definition of sustainable development in the report “Our Common Future” 15 years later. The authors noted that taking care of the environment is essential for the survival of humankind and stress the need to address the “inner limits” of human needs and rights and the “outer limits” of what the planet can sustain. In the book it is made clear that there is a great need for the development of a international environmental movement to address pollution and environmental damage. Governments and international organizations should play a great role in the establishment of this movement.3

Meadows, D.H. et al., The Limits to Growth (New York 1972)
This book is written on behalf of the Club of Rome. The Limits to Growth is a study on the future of the planet, its goal was to explore how exponential growth interacts with the finite resources of the earth. The authors of this book therefore developed a computing model which produced future scenarios for the earth by means of various global developments. Most scenarios showed an ongoing growth of the population and economy until the year 2030, which would bring a turning point. . The main message of the book was that unchecked consumption and economic growth on our finite planet was leading the Earth towards ‘overshoot’ of its carrying capacity, followed by disaster. The book was a major catalyst for further research in the field of environmental issues and the ‘overshoot’ of the planet up till today.4

1Turchin, P., ‘Does population ecology have general laws?’ Oikos 94 (2001) 18
2Ehrlich, P.R., Ehrlich, A.H., ‘The Population Bomb Revisited’, The Electronic Journal of Sustainable Development (2009) 1 (3) 1-9
3Satterthwaite, D., Barbara Ward and the Origins of Sustainable Development (2006) http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/11500IIED.pdf 4, 10 – 13.
4http://www.clubofrome.org/?p=326

Schumacher, E.F., Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered (London 1973)
In this book, Schumacher argues that the modern economy is unsustainable: natural resources are treated as expendable income, when they should instead be treated as capital, since these resources are not renewable, and eventually will be depleted. According to Schumacher the government should play an important role to make the switch to a sustainable economy.
Described as “economics from the heart” Schumacher argues for a nobler economics. Schumacher studied village-based economics which led him to a philosophy of “enoughness”, appreciating both human needs, limitations and appropriate use of technology. This grew into, what he called, Buddhist economics. This means that the standard of living should not be measured by the amount of annual consumption, which assumes that a man who consumes more is ‘better off’ than a man who consumes less. Instead, consumption should be seen as a means to human well-being, the aim should therefore be to obtain the maximum of well-being with the minimum of consumption. The less toil there is, the more time and strength is left for artistic creativity. Modern economics, on the other hand, considers consumption to be the sole end and purpose of all economic activity. Schumacher is one of the first economics to question the appropriateness of using gross national product to measure human well being.
With his ideas Schumacher inspired movements as “Buy Locally” and “Fair Trade”. Small is Beautiful was named one of the 100 most influential books since World War II by the Times Literary Supplement.5

Hirsch, F., Social Limits to Growth (Cambridge, Massachusetts 1976)
In this book Hirsch argues that economic growth is decelerating, the causes (or limits) are essentially social rather than physical. Hirsch makes a distinction between two categories of goods (and services). The first category is formed by material goods, or goods as commonly defined in economics. There is however another category, which Hirsch calls positional goods. Positional goods define a individual’s position within society, and are therefore scarce. The problem that rises with these social scarcities is that while any individual has the possibility to attain positional goods, it is impossible for everyone to attain then. On top of that, widespread striving for these positional goods leads to either an increase of their price or a deterioration of their quality. An example is higher education and the competition for high-level jobs. More people are reaching higher levels op education, but the amount of high-level jobs remains more or less the same. As a consequence the employer as well as the employee face increasing costs of screening. Thus, both sides are worse off. Hirsch argues that the nature of market capitalism further aggravates this situation. Market capitalism is based on the pursuing of self-interest and cause a commercialization of social interaction.
Hirsch argues that this issue is a source of limits to growth. Since more people have their needs in the material category satisfied, a greater emphasis is put on the positional category. This has to consequences: Firstly, positional goods become relatively more expensive and/or their quality deteriorates. Secondly, an increasing part of the population is frustrated because they can not attain the positional goods they could attain, if not the whole society was getting richer. Consequently, economic growth is continuously aggravating the problems arising from social scarcity.6

Speth G., ‘The Global 2000 Report to the President’, Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review Vol. 8 No. 4 (1980) 695-703
The Global 2000 Study, initiated by President Carter in 1977, is a three-year effort bythe federal government to discover the long-term implications of present world trends inpopulation, natural resources and the environment. The report was prepared by the President'sCouncil on Environmental Quality of which Gus Speth is Chairman, in conjunctionwith the Department of State and eleven other federal agencies. So far it is the only global environmental/developmental study prepared by a national government for its head of state. This report presented projections of probable changes in world population, resources and the environment for the year 2000. The report concluded that: “If present trends continue, the world in 2000 will be more crowded, more polluted, less stable ecologically, and more vulnerable to disruption than the world we live in now. Serious stresses involving population, resources, and environment are clearly visible ahead. Despite greater material output, the world's people will be poorer in many ways than they are today.” The authors argued that if there are no changes in public policies, institutions, or rates of technological advance then these conditions are like to develop. Awareness of these trends is needed to induce changes that will alter the projected outcome.7
Unfortunately, this report never led to any real policy changes; in 1981 President Carter was succeeded by Ronald Raegan, who thoroughly disregarded every prediction and recommendation made in the Global 2000 Report.

5http://www.ecobooks.com/books/smbeaut.htm
6http://zielonygrzyb.wordpress.com/2012/01/22/social-limits-to-growth/
7Speth G., ‘The Global 2000 Report to the President’, Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review Vol. 8 No. 4 (1980) 695-703

Rockström, J. et al., ‘Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity’, Ecology and Society Vol. 14 No. 2 (2009) 32-65
In 2009, a group of 28 internationally renowned scientists identified and quantified a set of nine planetary boundariesin nine areas: Stratospheric ozone layer; biodiversity; chemicals dispersion; climate change; ocean acidification; fresh water consumption and the global hydrological cycle; land system change; nitrogen and phosphorus inputs to the biosphere and oceans; atmospheric aerosol loading. The scientists claim that if we stay within these boundaries humanity can continue to develop and thrive for generations to come. However, crossing these boundaries could generate abrupt or irreversible environmental changes. It is estimated that humanity has already transgressed three planetary boundaries: for climate change, rate of biodiversity loss, and changes to the global nitrogen cycle.
The proposed concept of “planetary boundaries” lays the groundwork for shifting our approach to governance and management, away from the essentially sectoral analyses of limits to growth aimed at minimizing negative externalities, toward the estimation of the safe space for human development. Planetary boundaries define, as it were, the boundaries of the “planetary playing field” for humanity if we want to be sure of avoiding major human-induced environmental change on a global scale.8

Jackson, T., Prosperity Without Growth: Economics for a Finite Planet (London 2009)
This book was originally released as a report by the Sustainable Development Commission in 2009. The report soon became the most downloaded report in the Commission’s history, and later that year it was published as a book. In this book it is argued that beyond a certain turning point economic growth does not further increase human well being. More economic growth is not the solution, because it will not deliver prosperity and well being for a global population projected to reach nine billion. Moreover, it is clear that the ecosystems that sustain our economies are collapsing under the impacts of ever rising consumption. Therefore humanity has to make a change to a path to prosperity that does not rely on continued growth. The debt-driven materialistic consumption is deeply unsatisfactory as the basis for our macro-economy. The book presents a roadmap to a sustainable macro-economy, which does not rely for its stability on relentless growth and expanding material throughput.
In times of recession especially, economic policy is all about returning to growth. A financial crisis could actually be a opportunity for some rethinking about what the economy is for, and how we can restructure our financial system to secure economic stability in the future, as well as achieving social and environmental benefits.
The Financial Times referred to the Prosperity without Growth as “one of the best books of 2009”, and The Guardian wrote the following: “A new movement seems to be emerging, and this superbly written book should be the first stop for anyone wanting a manifesto… In terms of a worldview for the new decade and beyond, this could well be the most important book you will read.”

Randers, J., 2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years (Vermont 2012)
In 2052 the Club of Rome raises the possibility that humankind might not survive on the planet if continues on this path of over-consumption and short-termism. In this book the following questions are raised: How many people will the planet be able to support? Will the belief in endless growth crumble? Will runaway climate change take hold? Where will quality of life improve, and where will it decline? Drawing on contributions from more than 30 thinkers in the field the author concludes that:
The author sees the excessively short-term predominant political and economic model as the main cause of future problems.9

8http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/
9http://www.clubofrome.org/?p=4211

2. Corporate Social Responsibility

Bowen, H.R., Social Responsibilities of the Businessman (New York 1953)
In Social Responsibilities of the Businessman Bowen came up with a preliminary definition of corporate social responsibility: “its refers to the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society“. Bowen is credited with first coining the term ‘corporate social responsibility’ and is therefore also seen as the Father of CSR. In this book Bowen argues that companies should not just pursue a maximum of profits but should instead strive for a effective combination of various productive elements to create harmony between economy and society. In the 1950s this book stood at the beginning of the modern age of CSR.10

McGuire, J.W., Business and Society (New York 1963)
McGuire has further contributed to the development of the concept of CSR. He states in his book that: “The idea of social responsibilities supposes that the corporation has not only economic and legal obligations but also certain responsibilities to society which extend beyond these obligations”. The idea of social responsibility as an obligation is a step forward in the direction of the contemporary interpretation of the idea of CSR: “the continuing commitment by business to contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the community and society at large."11

Freeman, R.E., Strategic Management: a Stakeholder Approach (Boston 1984)
In this book Freeman elaborated the stakeholder theory: a theory of organizational management and business ethics that addresses morals and values in managing an organization. A stakeholder is “any group or individual that can affect or is affected by theachievement of a corporation’s purpose.”12 Freeman argues that business should be understood as a system of how we create value for stakeholders. He presented a worldview that connected business and capitalism with ethics for once and for all. This book proved to be a landmark in the further development of the stakeholder theory. Freeman is globally acknowledged as a world leader in business ethics and strategic management.13

World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Changing Course: A Global Business Perspective on Development and the Environment (Cambridge 1992)
This book gathered the expertise of more than 50 global business leaders to show how the business community can achieve environmental protection coupled with economic growth. The authors coined the concept of “eco-efficiency” or “creating more value with less impact.”
Companies committed to eco-efficiency endeavor to produce goods and services using fewer resources and generating less waste and pollution. Research has found that eco-efficiency measures pay big dividends in cost-savings.14 Eco-efficiency is achieved through the delivery of “competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life while progressively reducing environmental impacts of goods and resource intensity throughout the entire life-cycle to a level at least in line with the Earth's estimated carrying capacity”.15
The 2003 World Bank Report “Race to the Top: Attracting and Enabling Global Sustainable Business” ranked the WBCSD as the second most influential forum for companies on CSR issues.16

10Carroll, A.B., ‘Corporate Social Responsibility: Evolution of a Definitional Construct’, BUSINESS & SOCIETY (1999) Vol. 38 No. 3, 269, 270
11Definition by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development 12R.E. Freeman, ‘The Stakeholder Approach Revisited’, Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts- und Unternehmensethik Vol. 5 no. 3 (2004) 229
13http://consciouscapitalism.org/node/434
14http://www.wbcsd.org/about/history.aspx
15http://www.iisd.org/business/tools/bt_eco_eff.aspx
16The World Bank Group, Race to the Top: Attracting and Enabling Global Sustainable Business(2003) 26

Elkington, J., Cannibals with Forks: the Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business (Oxford 1997)
"Is it progress if a cannibal uses knife and fork?" (Stanislaw Jerzy Lec). In this book Elkington argues that in capitalism as we know it, corporations are like cannibals, carving up and devouring competing corporations. Would capitalists who embraced sustainability -- cannibals with forks -- constitute real progress? Elkington coined the term “the triple bottom line”, also known as people, planet, profit. According to Elkington every business can use the sustainability's 3-pronged "fork" -- the triple bottom line -- to expand their company's life expectancy along with everyone else's on planet Earth. Elkington explained that the future market success of a company will often depend on its ability to satisfy not just the traditional bottom line of profitability, but also the two emerging bottom lines -- one focusing on environmental quality, the other on social justice. He further reviews the progress made on the “greening” of companies; outlines the seven great "sustainable" revolutions that are already unfolding and shows how business leaders should respond; describes the "sustainable corporation" and the expectations that future customers, shareholders, and employees will demand of the business world and provides a sustainability audit.17

Hawken, P., Lovins, A., Lovins, L.H., Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution (Boston 2000)
The title of the book, Natural Capitalism, refers to the natural resources and ecosystem services that make possible all economic activity. Therefore, these resources and services are of immense economic value. However, so far businesses have been failing to take these values into account, which results in the degradation of natural capital.
The authors argue that natural capitalism has four interlinked principles: increase resource productivity, redesign the industry on biological models with closed loops and zero waste, shift from the sale of goods to the provision of services, reinvest in the natural capital that is the basis of future prosperity. The book provides hundreds of examples that show these four principles will enable businesses to act as if natural capital were being properly valued, without waiting on consensus on what that value should be. These principles could already be introduced today, even when natural capital is hardly accounted for. These principles will be profitable in that firms that adopt them can gain striking competitive advantage.Natural Capitalism provides opportunities that if captured will lead to a transformation of commerce and of all societal institutions.18

Sukhdev, P., Corporation 2020: Transforming Business for Tomorrow’s World (Washington 2012)
Corporation 2020 presents the history of the corporation.Ffrom its earliest forms in ancient Rome and India to today’s multinationals, corporations have stamped their presence in many aspects of society. Their rise to economic dominance has delivered many benefits, but at significant and growing social and environmental costs. The book discusses some of the most troubling environmental and social impacts of modern corporations and proposes new ways to measure the costs of business and the corporation’s obligation to society.19
Through a combination of internal changes in corporate governance and external regulations and policies, Corporation 2020 can become a reality in next decade. A corporation that will increase human wellbeing and socialy equity, decrease environmental risks and ecological losses, and still generate profit.20

17http://books.google.nl/books/about/Cannibals_with_forks.html?id=SRNPAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y
18http://www.natcap.org/sitepages/pid5.php
19http://www.corp2020.com/detailnews.php?newsid=53
20http://www.islandpress.org/ip/books/book/islandpress/C/bo8690807.html

3. Sustainability

Goldsmith, E. and Allen, R., ‘A Blueprint for Survival’, The Ecologist Vol. 2 No. 1 (1972)
A Blueprint for Survival was published in January 1972, occupying all of The Ecologist Vol. 2 No.1, in advance of the world's first ever Environment Summit: the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, in Stockholm.Demand for the article was so great that later that year it was republished into a book. In this radical and influential issue Goldsmith and Allen first presented the idea of a sustainable society. In their article they argue that: “Our task is to create a society which is sustainable and which will give the fullest possible satisfaction to its members. Such a society by definition would depend not on expansion but on stability. This does not mean to say that it would be stagnant-indeed it could well afford more variety than does the state of uniformity at present being imposed by the pursuit of technological efficiency. We believe that the stable society, as well as removing the sword of Damocles which hangs over the heads of future generations, is much more likely than the present one to bring the peace and fulfillment which hitherto have been regarded, sadly, as utopian.”21
The authors argue for self-sufficient small communities, like those of native societies, as a model for sustainable living. These communities are characterized by their low-impact technologies, successful population controls, sustainable resource management, holistic and ecologically integrated worldviews, and a high degree of social cohesion, physical health, psychological well-being and spiritual fulfilment of their members. Therefore they are seen as the best alternative to the current heterogeneous and centralised society.
The Blueprint of Survival was signed by over thirty of the leading scientists of that time and made recommendations to the UN Human Environment Conference that society needed to be radically restructured in order to prevent “the breakdown of society and irreversible disruption of the life-support systems on this planet”.22

International Union for the Conservation of Nature, World Conservation Strategy (Gland 1980)
In this report the concept of “sustainable development” is used for the first time by international organizations. In the World Conservation Strategy sustainable development is defined as: “the maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support systems, the preservation of genetic diversity, andthe sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems.”23 The three main objectives of the report were:
The strategy was targeted at policy makers and advisers, conservationists and development practitioners, with the aim to help advance the achievement of sustainable development through the conservation of living resources. This comprehensive report proposed national and subnational strategies, methods to evaluate land and water resources. It recommended environmental and conservation policies, reviewing of legislation and greater public participation and suggested ways of increasing trained personnel.24

Since the publication of the World Conservation Strategy, many countries have developed conservation strategies. Moreover the strategy influenced the formulation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992).25

21http://www.theecologist.info/page33.html
22http://www.edwardgoldsmith.org/books/a-blueprint-for-survival/
23http://www.aocweb.org/AOC/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=Dz9Y19EghMo%3D&tabid=147
24International Union for the Conservation of Nature, World Conservation Strategy (Gland 1980) VI, VII
25http://www.anewmanifesto.org/timeline/the-world-conservation-strategy/

World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (London 1987)
Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report was commissioned by the General Assembly of the United Nations. Its task was: The publication of Our Common Future was of great influence for the realization of the Earth Summit in 1992 and the adoption of Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration and to the establishment of the Commission on Sustainable Development. Moreover the definition of sustainable development as: “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” is now one of the most recognized definitions of sustainable development. Thus the report made important contributions to the concept of sustainable development, including the recognition that the various crises around the globe are interlocking crises: these are not separate crisis, but these are one of the same.27

World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Changing Course: A Global Business Perspective on Development and the Environment (Cambridge 1992)
This book gathered the expertise of more than 50 global business leaders to show how the Business community can achieve environmental protection coupled with economic growth. The authors coined the concept of “eco-efficiency” or “creating more value with less impact.” Companies committed to eco-efficiency endeavour to produce goods and services using fewer resources and generating less waste and pollution. Research has found that eco-efficiency measures pay big dividends in cost-savings.28 Eco-efficiency is achieved through the delivery of “competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life while progressively reducing environmental impacts of goods and resource intensity throughout the entire life-cycle to a level at least in line with the Earth's estimated carrying capacity”.29
The 2003 World Bank Report “Race to the Top: Attracting and Enabling Global Sustainable Business” ranked the WBCSD as the second most influential forum for companies on CSR issues.30

26World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (London 1987) 6
27http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-ov.htm
28http://www.wbcsd.org/about/history.aspx
29http://www.iisd.org/business/tools/bt_eco_eff.aspx
30The World Bank Group, Race to the Top: Attracting and Enabling Global Sustainable Business(2003) 26

Hawken, P., The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability (New York 1993)
The Ecology of Commerce describes the environmentally destructive aspects of many current business practices, and offers the vision of businesses adopting new practices to promote environmental restoration. Hawken’s most important argument is that business causes the most abuses to the environment, but at the same time holds the most potential for solving our sustainability problems. Hawken argues that sustainable businesses do the following:
  1. Replace nationally and internationally produced items with products created locally and regionally.
  2. Take responsibility for the effects they have on the natural world.
  3. Do not require exotic sources of capital in order to develop and grow.
  4. Engage in production processes that are human, worthy, dignified, and intrinsically satisfying.
  5. Create objects of durability and long-term utility whose ultimate use or disposition will not be harmful to future generations.
  6. Change consumers to customers through education.
Unfortunately there are only a few companies that are really this sustainable, and most of them are small companies. Most companies do not act this way because our economic system allows them to pass on huge costs to the environment and society (externalities). If companies were forced to pay for these costs, many of them would go bankrupt. Hawken argues for a simple, but radical solution: force these externalized costs on the companies and industries responsible for them. One way to do this, is through Pigovian taxes, or “green fees”. The ultimate goal is to force companies and industries to pay the full price for social and environmental costs.31

Rees, W., Wackernagel, M., Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth (Gabriola Island 1996)
In 1992 Rees published Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaveout. In this article Rees uses the concepts of human carrying capacity and natural capital to develop a framework to determine each city’s “ecological footprint”. In this article Rees also argues for a revision of existing economic assumption regarding urbanization and the sustainability of cities in light of global ecological change.32
In 1996 Rees published together with Wackernagel the book Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. In this book Rees follows his earlier article on the ecological footprint, but now provides a tool to measure and visualize the resources required to sustain households, communities, regions and nations.33

Porritt, J., Capitalism, as if the World Matters (London 2005)
In this book Porritt addresses the question of whether capitalism is a system for the future. According to Porritt the answer is yes, because capitalism is the only realistic option we have. However, we should embrace a new type of capitalism, namely sustainable capitalism, to prevent environmental catastrophes from happening. This view sets Porritt apart from many environmentalists and thinkers about sustainability. Porritt argues: “Like it or not (and the vast majority of people do), capitalism is now the only economic show in town”. In this book a framework to realise a system of sustainable capitalism is laid out. Porritt argues this new system needs to different in two main respects: it needs to be sustainable and it needs to prioritise well being over financial wealth and economic growth. In this he follows the argument that the link between well being and economic growth is extremely weak.As Porritt puts it, “What gives this analysis extra bite is the linkage between declining levels of contentment and inequality: the greater the inequality of income distribution within a developed country, the higher the levels of dissatisfaction and alienation – with the interesting exception of Singapore”. Capitalism, as if the World Matters has played a significant role in arguing that not only capitalism and sustainability can go together, but also that a reformed version of capitalism is needed to achieve a sustainable society.34
The Financial Times wrote about this book: “A message that businesses may find they are surprised to agree with.” Former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair commented: “One of the most prominent voices promoting green issues over the last 25 years.”

31http://www.geoffwisner.com/index.php/book_reviews/article/?t=investing&f=ecology
32Rees, W., Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out, Environment and UrbanizationOctober 1992 vol. 4 no. 2121
33http://www.sustainable.org/living/education-training-and-lifelong-learning/777-our-ecological-footprint-reducing-human-impact-on-the-earth
34http://www.libdemvoice.org/capitalism-as-if-the-world-matters-jonathan-porritts-prescription-for-sustaintability-22569.html

Stern, N., The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review (Cambridge 2006)
There is now clear scientific evidence that emissions from economic activity, particularly the burning of fossil fuels for energy, are causing changes to the Earth´s climate.The Stern Review provides the most thorough and rigorous analysis to date of the costs and risks of climate change and reducing emissions and convincingly argues that the benefits of strong, early global action to mitigate climate change will be far lower than the costs. The report concludes that: The report argues for prompt and strong action. Because climate change is a global problem, the response has to international. It should be based on a shared vision of long-term goals and agreements on framework that will accelerate action over the next decade, and it must build on mutually reinforcing approaches at national, regional and international level.36

United Nations Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Global Sustainability, Resilient People, Resilient Planet: a Future Worth Choosing (New York 2012)
In August 2010 Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon established a 22-member panel to formulate a new blueprint for sustainable development and low-carbon prosperity. The panel included current and former heads of states, ministers, and representatives of the private sector and civil society. The title of the report refers to a breakthrough for ‘resilience’, a theory in which the ability of the planet’s systems are measured in order to adapt in withstanding pressures, turbulence and disaster in support of the long-term sustainability of these systems.37
In the report 56 recommendations are presented in order to advance its vision for a sustainable planet, a just society, and a growing economy. The panel argues for the integration of social and environmental external costs in global pricing and measurement of economic activities. The panel further argues that governments together should develop and apply Sustainable Development Goals to stimulate individual and collective action and complement the Millennium Development Goals, while at the same time providing in a post-2015 framework.
The panel stresses the importance of science as an essential guide for decision-making on sustainability issues, and therefore asks for the creation of Science Advisory Board.
This report is meant to be the counterpart of the landmark 1987 report Our Common Future. Besides that, the report’s recommendations contributed to preparations for the UN Conference of Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in June 2012.38

35http://fore.research.yale.edu/climate-change/science/the-stern-review-on-the-economics-of-climate-change/
36http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/CLOSED_SHORT_executive_summary.pdf
37http://www.environmentalgovernance.org/featured/2012/03/publication-highlight-resilient-people-resilient-planet-a-future-worth-choosing/
38http://sd.defra.gov.uk/2012/02/resilient-people-resilient-planet-a-future-worth-choosing/

United Nations Development Programme, Realizing the Future We Want for All, Report to the Secretary-General (New York 2012)
In January 2012 the UN System Task Team on the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda was established. Realizing the Future We Want for All is its first report. In the report it is argued that the central challenge of the post-2015 UN development agenda is to ensure that globalization becomes a positive factor for all the world’s people of present and future generations. So far globalization has offered great opportunities, but its benefits are very unevenly shared. Continuous striving for improvements in material welfare is threatening to surpass the limits of the natural resource base unless there is a radical shift towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production and resource use. The report argues that persistent inequalities and struggles over scarce resources are among key determinants of situations of conflict, hunger, insecurity and violence, which in turn are key factors that hold back human development and efforts to achieve sustainable development.
The report recommends: This report is to serve as a first reference for the broader consultations to take place.39

4. Circular Economy

Stahel, W., Reday G., The Potential for Substituting Manpower for Energy (New York 1976)
In 1976 Stahel and Reday presented this research report to the European Commission. In this report they introduced the concept of the “circular economy” and its impact on job creation, economic competitiveness, resource savings and waste prevention.40 In this report they analyze cars and buildings on a micro and macro economic basis and concluded that every product-life extension, in comparison with manufacturing, constitutes a substitution of manpower for energy, and of decentralized workshops for centralized factories.41
The report was published as a book in 1982, with the title for Jobs for Tomorrow, the Potential for Substituting Manpower for Energy. Nowadays this report has been recognized as one of the key pillars of sustainable development. Moreover, Stahel coined the phrase “Cradle to Cradle” and is seen as a very important influence in the developing field of sustainability.42

Pearce, D. Markandya A., Barbier B., Blueprint for a Green Economy (London 1989)
In this book Pearce gives a first definition for the concept of the green economy: “a economy that hasthe capability of replicating itself on a sustainable basis and that is consistent with non declining human welfareand with the sustainable use of resources.”43 The book presented practical policy recommendations for measures to “green” modern economies and put them on a path to sustainable development. The book especially argues for urgent process in three key policy areas: valuing the environment, accounting for the environment and incentives for environmental improvement.44 The authors argue that sustainable development is unachievable as long as the economy is depended on the depletion of natural capital to secure growth. In a green economy environmental assets are valued; it employs pricing policies and regulatory changes to translate these values into market incentives.45 The book concludes with a number of progress programmes to realise a green economy.

39http://www.un-ngls.org/spip.php?page=article_s&id_article=3992
40http://www.cradletocradle.nl/home/1162_walter-stahel.htm
41http://www.product-life.org/en/about
42http://www.cradletocradle.nl/home/1162_walter-stahel.htm
43http://www.erc.uct.ac.za/Research/publications/12-Wlokas-etal-Development_and_poverty.pdf
44http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9781849713535/
45http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/documents/ger/1.0_Introduction.pdf

Benyus, J., Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature (New York 2002)
Biomimicry is defined by Benyus as a “new science that studies nature’s models and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs and processes to solve human problems.” In this book Benyus names and explains the phenomenon of biomimicry, which has seemed to be unfolding in all different science disciplines. Her book is a collection of studies to nature’s greatest achievements. Since we are looking for more sustainable ways to live, biomimicry has been increasingly influential in the way we design and produce. After 3.8 billion years, life knows how to do this. Benyus argues that businesses should work together with biologists to answer the question “how would nature design this?” in order to create sustainable designs and production.46
Benyus is president of the Biomimicry Institute, a non-profit organization and is also co-founder of the Biomimicry Guild, the Innovation Consultancy. The last one helps innovators to learn from nature in order to design sustainable product, processes and policies for humankind.

McDonough, W. and Braungart, M., Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things (New York 2002)
William McDonough and Michael Braungart write the book “Cradle to cradle: remaking the way we make things”. The book is a plea calling for the transformation of human industry through ecologically intelligent design. McDonough and Braungart argue that the industrial system that "takes, makes and wastes" should be transformed from a cradle-to-grave model into a cradle-to-cradle model. The authors claim that “waste does not exist” and see all materials as nutrients for new products. Cradle to Cradle calls for the continuous reuse of materials with reverse logistics and renewable power systems.47 The book offers practical steps on how to innovate within today’s economic environment, and shows that the re-invention of our industries is within in reach and that is also our best chance at a future of sustaining prosperity.48

Pauli, G., The Blue Economy: 10 years – 100 innovations – 100 million jobs (Taos 2010)
The Blue Economy started off as a project to find 100 of the best nature-inspired technologies that could influence world economies, while providing basis human needs in a sustainable way. The research team found 340 innovations that could be merged into ecosystem functioning schemes. These were again reviewed by public policy makers, entrepreneurs, financial analysts, corporate strategy academics etc. Eventually the list of innovations was reduced to one hundred, which formed the basis for the book The Blue Economy. The book presents and investigation of different aspects of the world economies and offers ways to integrate these nature-inspired innovations into these aspects, to make them sustainable.49

United Nations Environment Programme, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication (2011) www.unep.org/greeneconomy
In this report UNEP presents its own definition of the green economy: “a economy that results in improved human well-being and social equity,while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities.” The report demonstrates that greening of economies does not slow growth down, but actually forms a new incentive to growth. It generates jobs, and can play an important role in the elimination of poverty. The report is targeted at policy makers in motivating them to create enabling conditions for increased investments in a transition to a green economy.50

46http://earthsky.org/human-world/janine-benyus-biomimicry-is-innovation-inspired-by-nature
47http://www.forbes.com/sites/terrywaghorn/2012/03/23/william-mcdonough-remaking-the-way-we-make-things/
48http://www.mcdonough.com/cradle_to_cradle.htm
49http://www.paradigm-pubs.com/catalog/detail/BluEco
50http://www.uncsd2012.org/index.php?page=view&type=400&nr=7&menu=45

Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Towards the Circular Economy (2012)
This report was the first to consider the economic and business opportunity for an accelerated transition towards a circular economy. In this report it is argued that companies should do more than working more efficiently, reducing costs, lowering emissions and handling raw materials more efficiently. Frontrunners are already collaborating with suppliers and customers to keep used products, sub products and materials in the closed loop. The report begins by emphasizing the need for change, and then outlines the concept of the circular economy and explains how companies could give meaning to this concept.51

The researchers of this report answered questions for the European Union like “how does the circular economy compare to the race to improve efficiency within today’s ‘take-make-dispose’ economy?”, “What are the benefits of a restorative model to businesses and the economy?”, “How can companies and policy makers carry the concept to its breakthrough at scale?” etc. Success stories of circular business models are provided, the success factors are identified, the sectors and products with the greatest potential are determined, and the broader economic impact is estimated. What came out is a comprehensive overview of the complete economic benefits. In the report it is concluded that the EU manufacturing sectors could realise annual net material cost savings of up to $380 billion in a transition scenario and up to $630 billion in an advanced scenario.52

51http://www.mvonederland.nl/content/publicatie/mckinsey-towards-circular-economy
52http://www.c2c-centre.com/library-item/towards-circular-economy